Publications
2024
Sarmiento LF, Rios-Florez JA, Rincon Uribe FA, Rodrigues Lima R, Kalenscher T, Gouveia A, Nitsch FJ (in press) Do stress hormones influence choice? A systematic review of pharmacological interventions on the HPA axis and/or SAM system. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. pdf
van Wingerden M, Oberließen L, Kalenscher T (2024) Egalitarian preferences in young children depend on the genders of the interacting partners. Nature Commun Psychol 2:89. pdf
--> Read the blog on our paper published in SpringerNature Research Communities
Noguer-Calabús I, Schäble S, Dören J, Kalenscher T (2024) Oxytocin effects on socially transmitted food preferences are moderated by familiarity between rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl). doi.org/10.1007/s00213-024-06682-x. pdf
Forbes PAG, Nitschke JP, Hochmeister N, Kalenscher T, Lamm C (2024). No effects of acute stress on monetary delay discounting: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Neurobiology of Stress 31: 100653. pdf
Kalenscher T (2024) Wortgewandt - Der Podcast aus Düsseldorf (Podcast in German). Click here to listen.
2023
Seidisarouei M, Schäble S, van Wingerden M, Trossbach SV, Korth C, Kalenscher T (2023) 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations do not signal social anhedonia in transgenic DISC1 rats. Brain Behav: e2984. pdf
Forbes PAG, Chaliani I, Schilbach L, Kalenscher T (2023) Autistic adults show enhanced generosity to socially distant others. Autism:1-11. pdf
2022
Zech MP, Schable S, Kalenscher T (2022) Discounting of Future Rewards and Punishments in Rats. eNeuro 9. pdf
Noguer-Calabús I, Schäble S, Kalenscher T (2022) Lesions of nucleus accumbens shell abolish socially transmitted food preferences. Eur J Neurosci 10.1111/ejn.15827. pdf
Nitsch FJ, Lüpken LM, Lüschow N, Kalenscher T (2022) On the reliability of individual economic rationality measurements. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 119:e2202070119. pdf
Seidisarouei D, Schäble S, van Wingerden M, Trossbach S, Korth C, Kalenscher T (2022) Social anhedonia as a Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1-dependent phenotype. Sci Rep 12:10182. pdf
Sellitto M, Kalenscher T (2022) Variations in progesterone and estradiol across the menstrual cycle predict generosity toward socially close others. Psychoneuroendocrinology 140:105720. pdf
--> This paper was selected as the Editor's Choice of Psychoneuroendocrinology in June 2022.
van Wingerden M, Kalenscher T (2022) Choice Behavior. In: Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience (Jaeger D, Jung R, eds), pp 723-735. New York, NY: Springer. pdf
van Wingerden M, Kalenscher T (2022) Decision-Making, Bias. In: Encyclopedia of Computational Neuroscience (Jaeger D, Jung R, eds), pp 1130-1135. New York, NY: Springer. pdf
2021
Nitsch F, Kalenscher T (2021) Influence of memory processes on choice consistency. Royal Society Open Science 8:200308. pdf
Sellitto M, Neufang S, Schweda A, Weber B, Kalenscher T (2021) Arbitration between insula and temporoparietal junction subserves framing-induced boosts in generosity during social discounting. NeuroImage, 238, 118211. pdf
Seidisarouei D, van Gurp S, Pranic NM, Noguer Calabus I, van Wingerden M, Kalenscher T (2021) Distinct Profiles of 50 kHz Vocalizations Differentiate Between Social Versus Non-social Reward Approach and Consumption. Front Behav Neurosci 15:693698. pdf
Nitsch FJ, Sellitto M, Kalenscher T (2021) The effects of acute and chronic stress on choice consistency. Psychoneuroendocrinology 131:105289. pdf
Nitsch F, Sellitto M, Kalenscher T (2021) Trier social stress test and food-choice: Behavioral, self-report & hormonal data. Data in Brief 37:107245. pdf
Studer B., Timm A., Sahakian B., Kalenscher T., Knecht S (2021). A decision-neuroscientific intervention to improve cognitive recovery after stroke. Brain. pdf
Hu Y, van Wingerden M, Sellitto M, Schäble S, Kalenscher T (2021) Anterior Cingulate Cortex Lesions Abolish Budget Effects on Effort-Based Decision-Making in Rat Consumers. J Neurosci 41:4448-4460. pdf
Löbner S, Gamerschlag T, Kalenscher T, Schrenk M, Zeevat H (2021) Concepts, Frames and Cascades in Semantics, Cognition and Ontology. Cham: Springer Nature. pdf
Kalenscher T, Schönfeld L, Löbner S, Wöhr M, van Berkel M, Zech M, van Wingerden M (2021) Rat ultrasonic vocalizations as social reinforcers – implications for a multilevel model of the cognitive representation of action and rats' social world. In: Concepts, Frames and Cascades in Semantics, Cognition and Ontology. (Löbner S GT, Kalenscher T, Schrenk M, Zeevat H, ed). Cham: Springer Nature. pdf
Löbner S, Gamerschlag T, Kalenscher T, Schrenk M, Zeevat H (2021) Introduction. In: Concepts, Frames and Cascades in Semantics, Cognition and Ontology. (Löbner S, Gamerschlag T, Kalenscher T, Schrenk M, Zeevat H, eds). Cham: Springer Nature. pdf
2020
Schönfeld LM, Schäble S, Zech MP, Kalenscher T (2020) 5-HT1A receptor agonism in the basolateral amygdala increases mutual-reward choices in rats. Sci Rep 10:16622. pdf
Kalenscher T (2020) Social Neuroscience: How the Brain Attends to the Joys and Pains of Others. Current Biology 30:R1076-R1078. pdf
van Gurp S, Hoog J, Kalenscher T, van Wingerden M Vicarious reward unblocks associative learning about novel cues in male rats. eLife 9:e60755. pdf
Schweda A, Margittai Z, Kalenscher T (2020) Acute stress counteracts framing-induced generosity boosts in social discounting in young healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 121. pdf
Pläschke RN, Patil KR, Cieslik EC, Nostro AD, Varikuti DP, Plachti A, Lösche P, Hoffstaedter F, Kalenscher T, Langner R, Eickhoff SB (2020) Age differences in predicting working memory performance from network-based functional connectivity. Cortex 132: 441-459. pdf
Neufang S, Akhrif A (2020) Regional Hurst Exponent Reflects Impulsivity-Related Alterations in Fronto-Hippocampal Pathways Within the Waiting Impulsivity Network. Front Physiol 11:1-9. pdf
Kiesow H, Dunbar RIM, Kable J, Kalenscher T, Vogeley K, Schilbach L, Marquand AF, Wiecki TV, Bzdok D (2020) 10,000 social brains: Sex differentiation inhuman brain anatomy. Sci Adv 6:eaaz1170. pdf
Reuter N, Genon S, Kharabian Masouleh S, Hoffstaedter F, Liu X, Kalenscher T, Eickhoff SB, Patil KR (2020) CBPtools: a Python package for regional connectivity-based parcellation. Brain Struct Funct..pdf
Li Z, Yu H, Zhou Y, Kalenscher T, Zhou X (2020) Guilty by association: How group-based (collective) guilt arises in the brain. NeuroImage 209:1-13. pdf
2019
Schweda A, Faber NS, Crockett MJ, Kalenscher T (2019) The effects of psychosocial stress on intergroup resource allocation. Sci Rep 9:18620. pdf
Kalenscher T (2019) Cognitive Neuroscience: No gain, much pain. Current Biology 29:918-920. pdf
Archambault C, Kalenscher T, De Laat J (2019) Generosity and livelihoods: experimental evidence on the multidimensional nature of sharing among the Kenyan Maasai. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. pdf
Schönfeld LM, Zech MP, Schable S, Wohr M, Kalenscher T (2019) Lesions of the rat basolateral amygdala reduce the behavioral response to ultrasonic vocalizations. Behav Brain Res:112274.pdf
Oberließen L, Kalenscher T (2019) Social and Non-social Mechanisms of Inequity Aversion in Non-human Animals. Front Behav Neurosci 13:1-11. pdf
Studer B, Koch C, Knecht S, Kalenscher T (2019) Conquering the inner couch potato: precommitment is an effective strategy to enhance motivation for effortful actions. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 374:20180131. pdf
Kalenscher T (2019) Die Neurobiologie der Urteilsfindung. Oder: Was hat das Frühstück mit richterlichen Entscheidungen zu tun? Betrifft Justiz 137: 27-35. For reprint, please contact .
2018
Kalenscher T (2018) Die Neurobiologie der Urteilsfindung. Justice - Justiz - Giustizia 3:1-13. pdf
Margittai Z, Van Wingerden M, Schnitzler A, Joels M, Kalenscher T (2018) Dissociable roles of glucocorticoid and noradrenergic activation on social discounting. Psychoneuroendocrinology 90:22-28. pdf
Margittai Z, Nave G, Van Wingerden M, Schnitzler A, Schwabe L, Kalenscher T (2018) Combined Effects of Glucocorticoid and Noradrenergic Activity on Loss Aversion. Neuropsychopharmacology 43:334-341. pdf
Seinstra M, Sellitto M, Kalenscher T (2018) Rate maximization and hyperbolic discounting in human experiential intertemporal decision making. Behavioral Ecology. 29(1):193-203. pdf
Camilleri JA, Muller VI, Fox P, Laird AR, Hoffstaedter F, Kalenscher T, Eickhoff SB (2018) Definition and characterization of an extended multiple-demand network. NeuroImage 165:138-147. pdf
Hernandez-Lallement J, van Wingerden M, Kalenscher T (2018) Towards an animal model of callousness. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 91:121-129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.029 & pdf
2017
Soutschek A, Burke CJ, Beharelle AR, Schreiber R, Weber SC, Karipidis I, ten Velden J, Weber B, Haker H, Kalenscher T, Tobler PN (2017) The dopaminergic reward system underpins gender differences in social preferences Nature Human Behaviour. Online Publication. pdf
Pläschke RN et al. (2017) On the integrity of functional brain networks in schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and advanced age: Evidence from connectivity-based single-subject classification. Hum Brain Mapp. Published online ahead of print. pdf
Schönfeld, L. M., Jahanshahi, A., Lemmens, E., Bauwens, M., Hescham, S. A., Schipper, S., ... & Temel, Y. Motor cortex stimulation does not lead to functional recovery after experimental cortical injury in rats. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 1-11.
Kalenscher T (2017) Social psychology: love thy stranger as thyself. Nature Human Behaviour 04:Article no. 0108. pdf
Soutschek A., Ugazio G., Crockett M. J., Ruff C. C., Kalenscher T., Tobler P. N. (2017) Binding oneself to the mast: stimulating frontopolar cortex enhances precommitment. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. Published online ahead of print. pdf
Hernandez-Lallement J, van Wingerden M, Schable S, Kalenscher T (2017) A Social Reinforcement Learning Hypothesis of Mutual Reward Preferences in Rats. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 30:159-176. get the paper here
2016
Soutschek A., Ruff C. C., Strombach T., Kalenscher T., Tobler P. N. (2016). Brain stimulation reveals crucial role of overcoming self-centeredness in self-control. Science Advances. 2(10). e1600992. Llnk
Strombach T., Margittai Z., Gorczyca B., Kalenscher T. (2016). Gender-Specific Effects of Cognitive Load on Social Discounting. PLoS One. 11:e0165289. Link
Seinstra, M., Wojtecki, L., Storzer, L., Schnitzler, A., & Kalenscher, T. (2016). No effect of subthalamic deep brain stimulation on intertemporal decision making in Parkinson patients. eneuro, ENEURO-0019. Llnk
Lange-Asschenfeldt, C., Schäble, S., Suvorava, T., Fahimi, E. G., Bisha, M., Stermann, T., Henning, U. & Kojda, G. (2016). Effects of varenicline on alpha4-containing nicotinic acetylcholine receptor expression and cognitive performance in mice. Neuropharmacology, 107, 100-110. Link
Trossbach, S. V., Bader, V., Hecher, L., Pum, M. E., Masoud, S. T., Prikulis, I., ... Schäble, S. .... & Chwiesko, C. (2016). Misassembly of full-length Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 protein is linked to altered dopamine homeostasis and behavioral deficits. Molecular psychiatry. Link
Müller-Schiffmann, A., Herring, A., Abdel-Hafiz, L., Chepkova, A. N., Schäble, S., Wedel, D., ... & Sergeeva, O. A. (2016). Amyloid-β dimers in the absence of plaque pathology impair learning and synaptic plasticity. Brain, awv355. Link
Oberließen L, Hernandez-Lallement J, Schäble S, van Wingerden M, Seinstra M, Kalenscher T (2016) Inequity aversion in rats, Rattus norvegicus. Anim Behav 115:157-166. Link
Margittai Z, Nave G, Strombach T, Van Wingerden M, Schwabe L, Kalenscher T (2016) Exogenous cortisol causes a shift from deliberative to intuitive thinking. Psychoneuroendocrinology 64:131-135. Link
Hernandez-Lallement, J., van Wingerden, M., Schäble, S., & Kalenscher, T. (2016). Basolateral amygdala lesions abolish mutual reward preferences in rats. Neurobiology of learning and memory, 127, 1-9. Link
2015
Seinstra M, Grzymek K, Kalenscher T (2015) Gender-Specific Differences in the Relationship between Autobiographical Memory and Intertemporal Choice in Older Adults. PLoS One 10:e0137061. Link
Magittai Z., Strombach T., Van Wingerden M., Joels M., Schwabe L., Kalenscher T. (2015) A Friend in Need: Time-Dependent Effects of Stress on Social Discounting in Men. Hormones and Behaviour 73:75-82. Link
Van Wingerden M., Marx C., Kalenscher T. (2015). Budget constraints affect male rats' choices between differently priced commodities. PLoS ONE 10(6): e0129581. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129581 Link
Strombach T, Weber B, Hangebrauk Z, Kenning P, Karipidis, II, Tobler PN, Kalenscher T (2015) Social discounting involves modulation of neural value signals by temporoparietal junction. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:1619-1624. Link
Hernandez-Lallement, Van Wingerden M., Marx C., Srejic M. , Kalenscher T. (2015) Rats prefer mutual rewards in a prosocial choice task. Frontiers in Neuroscience 8:1-9. Link
2014
Trossbach S. V., Fehsel K., Henning U., Winterer G., Luckhaus C., Schäble S., Silva M. A., Korth C. (2014) Peripheral DISC1 protein levels as a trait marker for schizophrenia and modulating effects of nicotine. Behavioral Brain Research. 8:275C:176-182 Link
Strombach T., Jin J., Weber B., Kenning P., Shen Q., Ma Q., Kalenscher T. (2014). Charity begins at Home: Cultural Differences in Social Discounting and Generosity. Behavioral Decision Making; doi: 10.1002/bdm.1802 Link
Kalenscher T. (2014) Attitude toward health insurance in developing countries from a decision-making perspective. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology and Economics. 73:174-193 Link
Kalenscher T. (2014) Decision-Making and Neuroeconomics. In: eLS. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. Link
van Wingerden M., van der Meij R., Kalenscher T., Maris E., Pennartz C. M. (2014) Phase-Amplitude Coupling in Rat Orbitofrontal Cortex Discriminates between Correct and Incorrect Decisions during Associative Learning. Journal of Neuroscience 34:493-505. Link
Hernandez Lallement J., Kuss K., Trautner P., Weber B., Falk A., Fliessbach K. (2014). Effort increases sensitivity to reward and loss magnitude in the human brain. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 9(3): 342-349. Link
2013
Haushofer J., Cornelisse S., Seinstra M., Fehr E., Joels M., Kalenscher T. (2013) No Effects of Psychosocial Stress on Intertemporal Choice. PLoS One 8:e78597. Link
Kalenscher T., Strombach T. (2013). Die Macht der Versuchung. Gehirn und Geist 10/2013. Link
de Souza Silva MA, Lenz B, Rotter A, Biermann T, Peters O, Ramirez A, Jessen F, Maier W, Hüll M, Schröder J, Frölich L, Teipel S, Gruber O, Kornhuber J, Huston JP, Müller CP, Schäble S. (2013). Neurokinin3 receptor as a target to predict and improve learning and memory in the aged organism. PNAS; doi: 10.1073/pnas.1306884110 Link
Crockett M. J., Braams B., Clark L., Tobler P. N., Robbins T. W., Kalenscher T. (2013). Restricting temptations: neural mechanisms of precommitment. Neuron 7:391-401. Link
Vinkers C. H., Zorn J. V., Cornelisse S., Koot S., Houtepen L. C., Olivier B., Verster J. C., Kahn R. S., Boks M. P., Kalenscher T., Joels M. (2013). Time-dependent changes in altruistic punishment following stress. Psychoneutoendocrinology 38:1467-1475 Link
2012
Van Wingerden, M. and T. Kalenscher (2012). Animal decisions - a look across the fence. Frontiers in Neuroscience 6: 142. Link
Hagen E.H., Chater N., Gallistel C.R., Houston A., Kacelnik A., Kalenscher T., Nettle D., Oppenheimer D., Stephens DW (2012). Decision Making: what can evolution do for us? In: Evolving the Mechanisms of Decision Making: Toward a Darwinian Decision Theory (Hammerstein P, Stevens JR, eds). Frankfurt a.M.: Strüngmann Forum Reports. Link
van Wingerden, M., Vinck, M., Tijms, V., Ferreira, I.R.S., Jonker, A.J., Pennartz, C.M.A. (2012). NMDA Receptors Control Cue-Outcome Selectivity and Plasticity of Orbitofrontal Firing Patterns during Associative Stimulus-Reward Learning, Neuron 76, 813-825 Link
Marx, C., Lex B., Calaminus C., Hauber W., Backes H., Neumaier B., Mies G., Graf R., Endepols H. et al. (2012). Conflict Processing in the Rat Brain: Behavioral Analysis and Functional muPET Imaging Using [F]Fluorodeoxyglucose. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 6: 4. Link
2011
Kalenscher, T. and M. van Wingerden (2011). Why we should use animals to study economic decision making - a perspective. Frontiers in human Neuroscience 5: 82. pdf
Vinck, M., Oostenveld, R., van Wingerden, M., Battaglia, F., & Pennartz, C. (2011). An improved index of phase-synchronization for electrophysiological data in the presence of volume-conduction, noise and sample-size bias. Neuroimage, 55(4), 1548-1565. pdf
Pennartz C.M., van Wingerden M., Vinck M. (2011). Population coding and neural rhythmicity in the orbitofrontal cortex. Annals of the NY Academy of Sciences 1239:149-161. pdf
2010
Kalenscher, T., Tobler, P. N., Huijbers, W., Daselaar, S. M., & Pennartz, C. M. (2010). Neural signatures of intransitive preferences. Frontiers in human neuroscience, 4. pdf
Kalenscher T., Lansink C.S., Lankelma J.V., Pennartz C.M. (2010) Reward-associated gamma oscillations in ventral striatum are regionally differentiated and modulatelocal firing activity. Journal of Neurophysiology 103:1658–1672. pdf
van der Meer MA, Kalenscher, T., Lansink, C.S., Pennartz, C. M., Berke, JD., Redish, A.D.(2010) Integrating early results on ventral striatal gamma oscillations in the rat. Frontiers in Neuroscience 4:300. pdf
van Wingerden M, Vinck M, Lankelma J, Pennartz C. M. (2010) Theta-band phase locking of orbitofrontal neurons during reward expectancy. Journal of Neuroscience 30:7078–7087. pdf
van Wingerden, M., Vinck, M., Lankelma, J. V., & Pennartz, C. M. (2010). Learning-Associated Gamma-Band Phase-Locking of Action–Outcome Selective Neurons in Orbitofrontal Cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(30), 10025-10038. pdf
Vinck, M., van Wingerden, M., Womelsdorf, T., Fries, P., Pennatz, CMA. (2010). The pairwise phase consistency: A bias-free measure of rhythmic neuronal synchronization. NeuroImage 51(1): 112-122. pdf
2009
Kalenscher T. (2009). Decision-making and neuroeconomics. In: Encyclopedia of Life Sciences (ELS). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester
Battaglia F.P., Kalenscher T., Cabral H., Winkel J., Bos J., et al. (2009). The Lantern: An ultra-light micro-drive for multi-tetrode recordings in mice and other small animals. Journal of Neuroscience: Methods 178, 291-300. pdf
2008
Kalenscher T, Tobler P.N. (2008). Interdisciplinary perspectives on decision making (Editorial). Cognitive Affective Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 345-347. pdf
Tobler, P. N., Kalis, A., Kalenscher, T. (2008). The role of moral utility in decision making: an interdisciplinary framework. Cognitive Affective Behavioral Neuroscience 8(4): 390-401. pdf
Kretzschmar C, Kalenscher T, Güntürkün O, Kaernbach C (2008). Echoic memory in pigeons. Behavioral Processes, 79, 105-110. pdf
Kalenscher, T., Pennartz C.M.A (2008). Is a bird in the hand worth two in the future? The neuroeconomics of intertemporal decision-making. Progress in Neurobiology 84(3): 284-315. pdf
Kalenscher T, Tobler P.N.(2008). Comparing Risky and Inter-Temporal Decisions: Views from Psychology, Ecology and Microeconomics. In: Hoffmann KP (ed.), Psychology of Decision Making in Economics, Business and Finance, pp 111-135. New York: Nova Science Publishers
2007
Tobler, P. N., T. Kalenscher (2007). Awfully afraid? Dissociating decision- from motor- and sensory-related brain activation during perceptual choices. Journal of Neuroscience 27(23): 6081-6082.
Kalenscher, T. (2007). Decision making: don't risk a delay. Current Biology 17(2): R58-61. Kalenscher T (2007). Choosing is feeling - the cognitive neuroscience of decision making. Lancet Neurology, 6, 26-27. pdf
2005-2006
Kalenscher T, Ohmann T, Windmann S, Freund N, Güntürkün O (2006). Single forebrain neurons represent interval timing and reward amount during response scheduling. European Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 2923-2931. pdf
Kalenscher T, Ohmann T, Güntürkün O (2006). The neuroscience of impulsive and self-controlled decisions. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 62, 203-211. pdf
Kalenscher T, Güntürkün O, Calabrese P, Gehlen W, Diekamp B (2005). Neural correlates of a default response in a Go-NoGo task. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 84, 521-535. pdf
Kalenscher T, Windmann S, Diekamp B, Rose J, Güntürkün O, Colombo M (2005). Single units in the pigeon brain integrate reward amount and time-to-reward in an impulsive choice task. Current Biology, 15, 594-602. pdf
Comment in: Stuphorn V (2005). Neuroeconomics: The shadow of the future. Current Biology, 15, R247-R249. pdf
2002-2004
Richter S, Maschke M, Timmann D, Konczak J, Kalenscher T, Illenberger AR, Kalveram KT (2004). Adaptive Behaviour of Cerebellar Patients During Exposure to Unfamiliar External Forces. Journal of Motor Behavior, 36, 28-39. pdf
Kalenscher, T., Diekamp, B., Güntürkün, O. (2003). Neural architecture of choice behaviour in a concurrent interval schedule. European Journal of Neuroscience 18(9): 2627-2637. pdf
Kalenscher, T., Kalveram, K. T., Konczak, J.(2003). Effects of two different dynamic environments on force adaptation: exposure to a new force but not the preceding force experience accounts for transition- and after-effects. Motor Control 7(3): 242-263. pdf
Keller I, Makipaa A, Kalenscher T, Kalache A (2002). Global Survey on Geriatrics in the Medical Curriculum. World Health Organization, Geneva. pdf
Before 2002
Taylor JG, Jäncke L, Shah NJ, Nösselt T, Schmitz N, Himmelbach M, Kalenscher T, Müller-Gärtner HW (1998). A Three Stage Model of Awareness: Formulation and Initial Experimental Support. Neuroreport, 9, 1787-1792. pdf
PhD Thesis Tobias Kalenscher
Decisions in the Brain: The Role of the Avian Forebrain (Nidopallium Caudolaterale) in Decision-Making